Nursing Care Centers For Older People

Nursing Care Centers For Older People The strategy of wellbeing and social consideration is smooth dependent on the consideration and requests of the more seasoned individuals. More established individuals just as specialist organizations are influenced because of the proceeding with changes in wellbeing arrangement and weights for cost regulation. Numerous a period, more seasoned individuals have ended up implies tried for administrations that have been without given of cost. Courses of action from nursing care homes limit the cash accessible everywhere throughout the world, utilization of a recipe that deciphers low, medium and high need. A little commitment to the expense of care is paid. As indicated by a universal examination, the standards of these sorts of organizations spread appraisal, for instance, the single evaluation process (SAP) and the national help system. Be that as it may, the methodology of any worldwide organization should uncover, in the two its structure and procedure, great and most recent nursing practice. Presently nursing appraisal for more established individuals is significant. A specialist nursing care and care homes for more seasoned individuals assumes a significant job in the consideration and solace of more seasoned individuals. Wellbeing and social consideration needs have been between related by the individuals who need proceeding with care. Nursing care in care homes has been for some time contended that differentiations between the two are unworkable. Along these lines, a meeting was led which help more established could individuals to convey and offset their wellbeing needs with their picked way of life. Clinical judgment is utilized by the Care Home staffs to deal with more seasoned individuals and empower them to , improve, keep up, recuperate and to adapt up to their issues and to accomplish a superior personal satisfaction. More seasoned individuals make up an enormous and expanding level of the momentum populace. As individuals become more established, with the pace of expanding their ages, they are progressively in danger of such huge numbers of medical issues numerous wounds too. Tumbling down is the primary sign of an undetected sickness. Significant counteractions ought to be taken for these sorts of issues as they make impressive mortality, horribleness and languishing over more seasoned individuals and their families, and bring about social expenses because of medical clinic and nursing home confirmations. Directed systems ought to be made which focus on conduct change and hazard adjustment for those living in the network seem, by all accounts, to be generally encouraging. Examination strategies Online examination information from various sites, various articles, and hypothetical investigations from various books. The system which had been utilized was gathering information from both essential and optional sources. Essential sources were the individual association with the specialists and optional was the data gathered from sites. Subjective meetings were utilized to investigate sees on keeping up nobility of 18 occupants of nursing homes. A subjective distinct methodology was utilized. The investigation was both deductive (emerging from the pride model) and inductive (emerging from members sees). Writing REVIEW AND FINDINGS Today the vast majority of the more established individuals living in nursing homes are losing their life there itself. Model dependent on experimental, is of pride which has been created and which frames the premise of a concise psychotherapy to help in advancing poise and diminish trouble toward the finish of life of more established individuals. The fundamental goal of this investigation is to investigate the generalisability of the nobility model to help more established individuals in nursing homes. Because of this investigation, the primary classifications and highlights of the nobility model were extensively and instinctively bolstered on different issues like disease related issues, social parts of the ailment experience and poise ensuring collection. Nonetheless, a portion of the sub subjects which were identified with death were not bolstered and two new topics came out. A portion of the occupants discovered their indications and loss of their capacity were because of matur e age as opposed to disease. In spite of the fact that inhabitants didn't rise to encounter trouble because of considerations of looming passing, rather they were bothered by the different misfortunes they had experienced.â These discovering encourages in adding to our comprehension of the worries of more established individuals in care homes on keeping up nobility and recommend that respect treatment may support up their feeling of pride. This is one of the significant reasons of picking this theme identified with more seasoned individuals as in todays situation, more established individuals are loosing their reality. According to the discoveries we became more acquainted with that most of inhabitants who are living in nursing homes kick the bucket inside 2 years from numerous sorts of clinical pathologies. For the most part they are vigorously dependent on staff for their consideration, which can granulate down their feeling of nobility. Keeping up poise are considered as the most elevated need in wellbeing and social consideration methodology archives in most European nations and specific concerns have been raised about loss of respect in care. In spite of the fact that there is a serious deal about manner of speaking around respect, there is no concurred and recommended meaning of this. A concise survey of the examinations dependent on global investigates investigating the idea of nobility from a nursing point of view have demonstrated a wide scope of definitions and understanding identified with the develop; be that as it may, a generally normal and significant subject was to regard a patient as an individual. Two of the examinations have investigated the various perspectives on individuals on respect of more seasoned individuals in care homes. One of them found that not being a weight for others was imperative to occupants, and their feeling of respect was undermined by disease and care needs, simultaneously the other one portrayed three primary topics: The body which can not be perceived. Weakness and reliance on others. Self internal quality and a feeling of rationality. One of the methodologies identified with poise arranged consideration arrangement, which centers straightforwardly and explicitly around end of life, is Chochinovs pride moderating model. This model was created from interviews which were led with patients with cutting edge disease and other mature age issues (normal age was 75 years), concentrating on the elements which bolsters and subverts their pride. The especially most significant part of Chochinovs respect model is that it has given the structure to psychotherapy which helps in advancing a feeling of nobility and diminishes mental and otherworldly pain for more established individuals who are arriving at the finish of their life.This study has indicated promising outcomes for individuals with cutting edge malignant growth and different maladies, alongside their families. It is very obvious from various universal investigates that more established individuals living in care homes are totally defenseless helpless against having a cracked feeling of respect, which recommends that poise treatment, might be good for them. Since the treatment is brief which as a rule takes just two meetings and can be conveyed at the bedside by a prepared human services proficient, it might be doable to offer this in a consideration home setting. Be that as it may, the pride model, and consequently nobility treatment, depends on the perspectives on individuals who are living in home consideration habitats, the vast majority of whom were thought about in the network. It has been indicated that under 10% of inhabitants of nursing homes bite the dust from analyzed malignancies and other mature age troubles too. Regardless of whether the model is generalsable to individuals with no these sorts of issues or to those living in different settings, for example, care homes, isn't known. The point of this examination is to investigate and comprehend the generalisability of Chochinovs pride model to more established individuals thought about in nursing homes. As of late there has been an impressive increment in the requirement for successful human services and them oral boosting for more seasoned patients. Our general public is maturing step by step, and countless individuals are going into cutting edge old age.â‚ ¬Ã¢ ⠁†°dentification of treatable infections before it details its effect in more established individuals, guarantees decrease in untimely mortality and dreariness in mature age. The greater part of the old and delicate individuals are accepting long haul care in the network and there are various home consideration c ommunities for more established individuals. There is an observation that some early intercession and restoration administrations, at present which are being given in medical clinics and home consideration places, may be given in network settings. Progressively powerful human services communities are accessible for giving consideration overseeing interminable sicknesses, for example, incessant lung illness, cerebrovascular and coronary illness, diabetes, gloom, and degenerative conditions, for example, osteoporosis, dementia and Parkinsons infection. To be executed for all who may profit these intercessions should be composed into organized projects. To be the best home consideration community for more established individuals, and to react to the necessities of people, care arranging should assess the entirety of the social insurance needs of people especially when these incorporate both physical and psychological well-being issues just as the assurance of their pride. Powerful wellbeing advancement and proactive social insurance gave by the human services habitats for more seasoned individuals are expanding the dynamic life expectancy of more established individuals, lessening the quantity of individuals who endure inability, helplessness and reliance. The National Service Framework for Older People has been distributed to guarantee the conveyance of more excellent administrations to more seasoned individuals everywhere throughout the world. The NSF requires the ID of administration champions for more seasoned individuals inside Each home consideration association which are running for more established individuals. More seasoned individuals ought to approach another scope of transitional consideration benefits at home or in assigned consideration settings to advance their autonomy by offering propelled types of assistance from the nursing care administrations and nearby specialists to forestall superfluous emergency clinic affirmation and successful recovery administrations to empower early release from medical clinic and to forestall untimely or pointless admission to long haul private consideration. There ought to be a sheltered and successful consideration for more established individuals in upgraded care settings in the network and nur

Fight Club Essay free essay sample

From the Bottom Up One of the numerous focal subjects in Chuck Palahniuk’s epic Fight Club is simply the possibility that one needs to separate themselves so as to develop themselves. Joe, who fills in as both the storyteller and the hero in both the novel and film, gets himself miserable in his consumerist life where the lines of sex jobs are continually being tested and obscured. Joe is tormented by his work consistently where he sees human lives being dismissed and transformed into unimportant insights with a dollar esteem ascribed to them on a piece of paper. This torment alongside the strain of not having the option to make any genuine human associations and connections alongside his disarray over his sexual orientation job in the public eye lead to the making of his adjust conscience, Tyler. Tyler is the specific inverse of Joe. In Terry Lee’s article â€Å"Virtual Violence in Fight Club: This Is What Transformation of Masculine Ego Feels Like†, he clarifies that Tyler â€Å"embodies Jack’s own subdued qualities, characteristics that are valuable, when contracted for brief periods in the administration of rolling out transformative improvement, however which can't be †or shouldn’t be †carried on in regular life† (420). We will compose a custom exposition test on Battle Club Essay or then again any comparable subject explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page What Joe is looking for then is a parity in his life; something to give his life significance and magnificence. He makes Tyler, or rather allows him to out, so as to accomplish that equalization and winds up ending up in a fight between his two personas that shows itself as male battling clubs. Joe seesaws between his old self, the one he is attempting to change, and Tyler who isn’t fundamentally the change that he needs to turn out to be but instead the impetus to the parity that he is attempting to reach. Tyler conveys a steady message to Joe all through both the novel and film, that will be that on the off chance that you need to correct change in yourself you need to overlook all that you pondered yourself and the existence that you lead. Tyler reveals to Joe that he is not even close to arriving in a desperate predicament yet and that on the off chance that he doesn’t fall as far as possible that he can’t be spared (Palahniuk 70). Tyler begins Joe on his excursion to the base by exploding his condo and disclosing to him that, It’s simply after you’ve lost everything that you’re allowed to do anything† (Fight Club). Having been associated into his consumerist job as a man and befuddled with respect to how to communicate his manliness his entire life, Joe is impervious to Tyler’s strategies. Lee expresses that, â€Å"Jack needs to stir from his purchaser deadness, his stifled, unfeeling life: the old Jack needs amazing, another Jack ca n come to life† (420). In the film, Joe doesn't understand that he needs to relinquish his old self totally so as to manufacture another better self until the end at the calamitous second when all of Tyler’s difficult work is going to come full circle in the blasts of a few elevated structures. The acknowledgment that Tyler’s activities are going to turn into a reality, in the film adjustment of Fight Club, stuns Joe into at long last tolerating and demanding the change that he required. He rises up out of his inward fight with Tyler successful and equipped with another awareness. Incidentally it was the storyteller, Joe, who said that, â€Å"Only after catastrophe would we be able to be resurrected† (Palahniuk 70). While obviously all Joe expected to do to discover bliss, which means, and magnificence in his life was find some kind of harmony among himself and his inner mind, Tyler, it is not out of the question to state that things got so crazy because that he was additionally experiencing a few clinical diseases. He not just without a doubt experienced a sleeping disorder and dissociative character issue yet additionally was most likely influenced by sadness and some level of sociopathy. A typical, solid individual most likely would have had the option to roll out steady improvements throughout their life to accomplish satisfaction.

Demand Elasticity of Luxury Automobiles Essay Example for Free

Request Elasticity of Luxury Automobiles Essay 1. Presentation â€Å"As long as there is a general public, there will consistently be fashion†. It was not shocked a style brands, particularly an extravagance design brands turned into a national fortune which impact the issues in business, political and social region in European nations. Since the Hermas set up in 1837, an extraordinary improvement procedure model has shaped and developed in European extravagance gathering. Daniele de winter, the CEO of Daniele de Winter Cosmetics express that â€Å"the mystery of fruitful style the executives is a finished mix of inventive virtuoso and business the executives keenness, ability and resourcefulness†. The create procedure is the key issue for an effective extravagance design organization. With the advancement of economy and the expansion of salary, increasingly more extravagance style organizations grow their business into Asia-Pacific locale, particularly the Hong Kong and terrain China showcase. As indicated by the yearly report of Richemont, The Pinault-Printemps-Redoute (PPR), Hemes, Bulberry and other extravagance design organizations, the deal income of Asia-Pacific area represents over 30% of the Group all out income. The Change of Global Luxury Fashion Market The word â€Å"luxury† beginning from Latin word â€Å"luxuria†, which implies a thing that â€Å"is costly and charming yet no basic (Waite, 2012)†. In 186 BCE, the triumph of armed force of Gnaeus Manlius Vulso brought such abroad extravagance as bronze love seats, and expensive material spreads into Rome. For some Roman antiquarians, the triumph of Vulso set apart as the start of extravagance industry in Europe. With the advancement of focuses, current extravagance design industry has become a cross-parts industry which offers significant expense merchandise and administration for target customers. Notwithstanding, over the course of about two decades, the cutting edge extravagance showcase has changed to the point of being unrecognizable. The tight scope of need and request of target shoppers and the restrictive dispersion channels, spoke to by French Fashion, have been supplanted by a mass industry, joined by development brands with a reasonable cost by a more extensive scope of purchasers. Since the start of 1990s, the extravagance business has been perceived and rebuilt by originators and the style fashioners become the maker of workmanship. As per the measurements from France Economic and Social Council in 2008 (France Economic and Social Council, 2008), with the procedure of â€Å"physical shop/store† and development brands advantage 7,000,000 euros. Contingent upon the redirection and internationalization, the extravagance business turns into an industry with more extensive purchasers. For instance, Hemes, oversaw by Jean-Louis Dumas, assorted varieties their merchandise and makes new items. The French extravagance make gets an effective on brand workmanship by buying gem brand Saint Louis and Silversmith Puiforcat. Thus, Richemont Family, the primary contender of French brand, likewise control quantities of brands, for example, Carites, Baume Mercier and Van Cleef Arpells. The second difference in extravagance industry is the change from the carefully assembled custom to mechanical normalization. Taking LVMH as model, there are three centers of item, as wines and soul, gear and cowhide, and design and scent industry. The popular brands in extravagance world, as Moet Chandon, Loewe, Vuitton, Givenchy, Kenzo, Dior and Guerlain, normalize the items like other substantial enterprises. Alongside the benefit looking for money related rationale, the showcasing and the item normalization become the significant thought with the idea of huge scope item. In the new focus, the idea of extravagance industry and the interest of shoppers are changing constantly. â€Å"Heritage and Prestige† is the milestone of heaps of extravagance brands and the suffering estimation of quantities of specific brands. Contrasting and the old style extravagance brand â€Å"which used to be a legacy brand† (Coste-Maniere, et al. , 2012), the new idea of extravagance, created by Louis Vuitton and Burberry, implies acknowledged by more customers. For the incidental clients, they simply appreciate the â€Å"right of luxury† in physical store against with the conventional client elite. In the new time, expanding the quantity of clients purchase the style item they could manage, instead of become the illustrious purchaser because of the significant expense. Thusly, accentuation of shopper need and the upper hand implies bringing together the guiding principle and exhausting brand limit at the same time. 2. 2 The Development Strategy Model of Luxury Fashion Brand The extravagance style brand begin in European nations which have ample recorded and social foundation. With the improvement of servial focuses, the extravagance style industry in European, American and Japanese have gotten full grown and standarlisation. Under this condition, the system of extravagance advancement in western nations bring together on the brand extension, making progress toward the center items and improvement of brand notoriety. 2. 2. 1 Brand Expansion: the Foundational Strategy Under the press of budgetary looking for methodology and the alterable of extravagance advertise, the old style extravagance design brand faces the test of advancement in the develop showcase in conventional European, American and Japanese locale. Under this situation, the extension of brands has become the fundamental system for an enormous number of extravagance design corporates, which offer another chance to pressure the brand picture, the most critical resources for an extravagance style organization. (Albrecht, et al. , 2013; Uggla Lashgari, 2012; Hoffmann Coste-Maniere, 2012)Many extravagance organizations advancement the conventional item limit and expensed their business into new market divisions. For example, Louis Vuitton, starting with baggage, put resources into other innovative circles: prepared to-wear industry just as gems advertise (LVMH, 2012), and Gucci, starting with cowhide merchandise, built up all arrangements of style items including calfskin merchandise, shoes, prepared to-wear, watches, adornments and different items. (PPR, 2012). In the interim, there are a few organizations expensed fragments into non-conventional zone. For instance, the extravagance gems make Bulgari and Italian brand Versace began to offer lodging under their image (LVMH, 2012) and Armani give various items from books, furniture and chocolates to cafés, bars and spas. The another Italian extravagance brand, Roberro Cavalli, renowned for its style attire for youthful age, offer wine and vodka just as run café (The Cavalli Caffe) and club (The Cavalli Club). 2. 2. 2 Striving for the Core: The Product Strategy For a worldwide corporate, it is regular principles of advancement rely upon the center creation or administration and afterward expansion. In any case, even as broadening, the greatness center creation and the most grounded areas inside the extravagance brands kept on acquiring most of its benefits from the customary items. (Ahrendts, 2013; Beverland, 2005; Miller Mills, 2012). For extravagance purchaser, they hope to gain a noteworthy brands and item with the goal that they emphase on the estimation of center legacy. The cowhide merchandise, the center of Gucci Group, gain 59% of its income in 2012 (PPR, 2012). The notable baggage is the custom from the time corporate was established and turn into the brand picture of the LVMH Group. (LVMH, 2011) The diverting of Burberry from a maturing British brand to a worldwide extravagance brand is an effective item methodology progress. Prior to 2006, through in an expanding worldwide market. Burberry confronted a low development at a pace of 2 rate each year and two contenders †LVMH and PPR had in excess of multiple times and multiple times Burberry’s deal income. By surving the divisions among Burberry items everywhere throughout the world, the outcomes show the outerwear, as the center, just accourted of 20% of Burberry’s worldwide brand business. Figure 1: the Facts and Financial Statistics of Burberry (Resource from: Burberry, Yahoo Finance) [pic] After conceptualizing and formalizing from the managerial board, the New Jersey factore which is making polo shirts was shut and put resources into the Casteford processing plant in Yorkshire which make the legacy trech coat included customary rainwear and restrictive waterproof gabardine. Burberry additionally enlist Christopher Bailey as the worldwide originator for development of center items. The realities and budgetary measurement of Burberry from 2006 to 2012 in Figure 1 demonstrated that the choice to concentrate on the legacy opened up an abundance of imagination. Before the finish of 2012, the deal incomes and working salary had multiplied than past 5 years, accomplishing $3 billion and $600 billion separately. (Burberry, 2007; Burberry, 2012) 2. 2. 3 The Brand Reputation: The Brand Strategy The brand is the most important piece of extravagance merchandise and the motivity of extravagance utilization. Once isolating from the extravagance brand, the products is the customary one. Each effective organization considers the to be as the most important fortune. they utilize the propelled showcasing rationale and promoting activity to rouse the turn of events, investigate ways to deal with express the worth and meaning of brands to extravagance purchasers and pull in the royality of clients. As a device of workmanship, a bearer of history, and a feeling of great, developing a high quiality notoriety is brand methodology for extravagance organizations. Since established in 1847, Cartier, as one of the most settled name in the jewellay advertise, is the reference of ture and immortal extravagance. Planning via Cartier, the item separates itself by the exceptional abilities and greatness in structure and execution. Almost in 30 years, the broad workmanship exercises are not serious without the help by the Foundation Crtier pour l’Art Contemporain (Richemont, 2013). With the improvement of brand notoriety, Cartier is the equivalent of current workmanship and a spearheading approach. In the interim, the majority of extravagance brands originate from the focal point of Renaissance 2. 3 The F

What role can and Should HRM play in an organization that is seeking Essay

What job can and Should HRM play in an association that is looking to extend its worldwide tasks - Essay Example As the people working for the organization in various areas are probably going to originate from various societies, the way of life of the organization itself must be built up with great HR arrangements and viable HR the executives (Hollinshead and Leat, 1995). As characterized by Ozbilgin (2005), International HRM is the act of getting the most extreme business esteem from human resources which are conveyed over the world working under the umbrella of a solitary organization. Verifiably, the social contrasts between the home office and the branch office situated in an alternate nation implied that eventually HR supervisors needed to confront the issue of culture conflict which is characterized as various societies influencing work procedures and work process (Faulkner, D. 2002). Before, these social contrasts were to a great extent overlooked and it was felt that the way of life of the organization would win while the way of life of the nation where the organization was found would not make any difference so much (Kamoche, 1996). Notwithstanding, ongoing assessments have demonstrated that culture clashes may should be effectively countered and could even be utilized to propel laborers as opposed to place different directors in struggle (Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1998). With these definitions and with the assistance of viable models just as master conclusions, it very well may be indicated that the pretended by HRM in an association that is looking to extend its worldwide activities is a twofold job. Right off the bat, HRM can help the arms of an association (both neighborhood and branch workplaces) grapple with one another taking into account their various societies. Furthermore, HRM can help and should help in making strategies which are confined for universal tasks. The focal social distinction that exists between the UK and a culture, for example, China or India originates from the very premise of the way of life for example language. While the transcendent language in the UK is English, it may not be utilized as the most widely used language in China since it is just learnt as a subsequent language.

Change Process and Models Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Change Process and Models - Coursework Example With no particle of trouble, the change that occurred can be clarified utilizing three change process hypotheses. These change procedure hypotheses have deliberately been identified beneath; comparable to the change that occurred inside the association. The main hypothesis that clarifies the change that occurred is the anticipation hypothesis. In an anticipation hypothesis, it is for the most part said that individuals are prompted to act in explicit manners since they are spurred to go about all things considered (Johnson, 2012). This means hope hypothesis requests that individuals take care of the inspiration they get by giving back superb conveyance. Taking a gander at the way that two individuals were advanced as a type of inherent inspiration (Homik et al, 2008), it very well may be said that the hope hypothesis was applied in this occurrence. This is on the grounds that by persuading these two representatives with the advancements, they will become obliged and expected to work with specific degrees of yield desires. On the off chance that to no end by any stretch of the imagination, they will be relied upon to work over their methods as a method of demonstrating to their bosses that they merit the advancements that were allowe d them. Another change procedure hypothesis that comes to play in this occasion is that of value hypothesis. As indicated by the value hypothesis, individuals inside an association will hope to judge whether there is in effect reasonable appropriation of accessible assets (Fuchs et al, 1997). With the current situation, decency and value can be decided from the way that the representatives of the association who were advanced can be named as assets since they structure the premise of the human asset of their association (Gardener, 2008). Also, decency was achieved in light of the fact that their difficult work for their association was recognized and compensated. Without a doubt, there had been circumstances inside a similar association whereby a few workers were very distressed in light of the fact that they felt that their endeavors were not perceived

Credit for Reddit

Credit for Reddit Theres a story my mother likes to tell about the time, soon after I began first grade, she received a polite but concerned note from my teacher. Evidently, when my time to show-and-tell had arrived, I read aloud from a library book about reproductive biology, with a degree of anatomical specificity my teacher considered frankly inappropriate for my age and audience. My teacher clarified that I was not in trouble because none of my classmates understood what I was talking about or indeed had seemed to pay me any attention at all (this was a recurring theme of my childhood and also my adulthood). Some parents might have discouraged inappropriate intellectual interests, but  I have long been grateful that my mother, who helps children with special needs navigate elementary school, never let my education get in the way of my learning. Love you, mom One of the best ways to learn is to teach, both because in order to teach you have to know your stuff, and because through the process of teaching, you learn more about your stuff, and how others think about/with/through it. For more than ten years Ive taught at the Talent Development Institute, a sort of summer camp for geeky 4-8th graders. As an undergraduate I TAd six classes on law and technology. When I first came to MIT I started teaching through SPLASH, one component of the MIT Educational Studies Program, which organizes classes for middle and high school students taught by college students and where the motto is Teach Anything, Learn Anything. As a graduate student (and as an undergraduate too, for that matter) I studied social media. I worked at the MIT Center for Civic Media, which builds, supports, and researches at the intersection of technology and social change. My thesis was on user-generated censorship, or how people manipulate social media to suppress speech. While I was working on my thesis I put out a call for a UROP to help me collect and analyze data about some reddit subcultures. Within a day my inbox was flooded by dozens of applications: there were tons of MIT undergraduates who wanted to research reddit. One deadpanned: Browse reddit during my UROP? I do that anyway. Another emailed back and said she hadnt even known it was possible to do Serious Academic Research about social media. That response surprised me. Id been involved in the social media research game for a long time. So has MIT. Just to name a few of the media researchers affiliated with CMS/W, we have: T.L. Taylor, a qualitative sociologist working in the field of internet and game studies whose most recent book was about the professionalization of video gaming Nancy Baym, a sociologist, Principal Researcher at Microsoft Research New England and cofounder of the Association of Internet Researchers Sasha Costanza-Chock, a communications scholar and media maker who studies how social movements use information and communication technologies Ethan Zuckerman, Director of the Center for Civic Media, cofounder of Global Voices and Geekcorps, and the driving force behind MediaCloud, a project to help researchers ask and answer complex quantitative and qualitative questions about online media After I graduated and returned to admissions, I knew I wanted to teach, and I kept thinking about those UROP responses and how I could teach to that evident interest. T.L. was teaching a course on the sociocultural aspects of the Internet called Networked Cultures in the fall, and Sasha was teaching Networked Social Movements: Media Mobilization in the spring. I decided to propose a complementary course, one that would widely canvass current topics, core theories, and useful methods for studying social media, broadly defined. In short, I wanted to design and teach the sort of class I would have liked to take as an undergraduate. So I pitched the class to  Ed Schiappa, the Head of CMS/W. He listened. He asked insightful questions. He (kindly) pointed out several glaring flaws in my proposal. But he liked my idea. And he offered to help me improve it. Ed was already scheduled to teach CMS.400: Media Systems and Texts that spring, so he invited me to coteach it with him. We got together over IAP and drafted a new syllabus that melded a diverse set of topics and methods. We based the grading around class participation to encourage discussion and group projects to encourage students to get their hands dirty and try things. To reflect the student interest that drove the creation of the class in the first place, we nicknamed the course Credit for Reddit. A photo Ed took of me facilitating a class discussion of privacy and the presentation of self online right around Pi Day (notice cup of Dunks gripped firmly in hand) Teaching Credit for Reddit was one of the most awesome experiences of my life. We had fifteen students from all four years and a diverse mix of majors including Course 6 (Computer Science), Course 8 (Physics), Course 9 (Neuroscience), Course 10 (Chemical Engineering), and CMS itself. They challenged me and they challenged each other. They pushed themselves to learn new things and produced amazing prototype and final projects, including: Danny and Matt, who analyzed ~6 months of data from dogetipbot to investigate whether being tipped in Dogecoin encourages cryptocurrency adoption Hannah, Emad, Mei, and Skylar, who conducted several surveys about impostors syndrome among MIT undergraduates across demographic categories Diana, Akash, Sashko, and Angela, who designed an online quiz to test what types of headline styles are preferred by what types of readers Stephen and Laura, who conducted qualitative and quantitative analyses of The Techs online audience Ari, who conducted a large user study of people who use a very popular iOS app he built Erin, who used natural-language processing to analyze books and newspapers from different decades and detect trends in language Jeremy, our TA, who proposed a study design for distributing $100 worth of Bitcoin to every MIT undergraduate (and, after the class, secured $500,000 and a ton of faculty sponsors to actually do it) Theres been some press lately about the course (which is why I now know what SourceFed is), mostly, I think, because MIT students studying reddit makes for an entertaining story. And it is an entertaining story. But its also not the real story. The real academic story is that social media are social systems, shaped by people even as they shape the people who use them. Thats why reddit, along with some other platforms, just launched the Digital Ecologies Research Project, which will help academic researchers study these kinds of popular platforms. And the real cultural story is that a place like MIT, and a department like CMS/W, is willing to experiment educationally: to basically say, you know what, this seems really interesting, and it matters, so lets get a bunch of people from different backgrounds together in a room and figure out what the heck is happening. I feel very fortunate to work at an academic institution that welcomes that kind of intellectual risktaking. Wow. Very internet. Much fun.

Pastoral Landscapes - Free Essay Example

Hedgerow Management in Pastoral Landscapes Abstract Hedgerows are an important part of the British landscape, providing both food and shelter for a number of taxa. As part of the UK government’s Environmental Stewardship (ES) Scheme, farmers are granted subsidies for, amongst other things, ‘enhanced hedgerow management’. Although hedgerow management under ES is expected to have beneficial effects for taxa such as invertebrates and birds, less is known about the effects ES management will have on small mammal communities. The aim of this study was to investigate whether this ‘enhanced hedgerow management’ is affecting hedgerow characteristics in pastoral landscapes and whether small mammal abundances are increased under ES managed hedgerows. ‘Conservation buffer strips’ (2m+ unimproved grassy margins) were investigated as a possible improvement to ES hedgerow management. Using live trapping methods, I investigated small mammal abundances in ES managed hedgerows compared with non-ES managed hedgerows. Wood mice Apodemus sylvaticus and bank voles Clethrionomys glareolus were the most abundant species, with some captures of field voles Microtus agrestis and common shrews Sorex araneus. Small mammal abundances were increased in ES managed hedgerows, however, the presence of a ‘conservation buffer strip’ was more significant in increasing small mammal densities. ES management showed no definite effect on the hedgerows’ characteristics. Introduction Agricultural intensification since the 1940s has led to widespread and significant reductions in the biodiversity of many agricultural areas. This drive for greater yields has been linked with the population decreases seen in many species of farmland specialists and non-specialists who often inhabit farmland (Robinson and Sutherland, 2002). Farmland habitats can be categorised into non-linear habitats such as set-aside, cropped fields and woodland areas, and linear habitats, generally field boundaries, such as ditches, banks, streams and hedgerows. These field boundaries remain relatively undisturbed areas and are therefore significant wildlife corridors within otherwise inhospitable agricultural landscapes (Tew, 1994). Although there continued to be a reduction in total area of hedgerows within the UK during the 80s and early 90s, the last decade has seen small increases in the area of hedgerow as their conservation significance became more documented (Barr and Gillespie, 2000) . This increase in the number of hedgerows has been driven by government backed grants. Countryside Steward (CS), set up in 1991 encouraged selected farmers to enhance and conserve the wildlife within their farms, a large part of this involved the laying of new hedgerows. The CS schemes have now been superseded by the Environmental Stewardship Schemes. More recently, hedgerow grant pilot schemes have been set up in a number of regions to encourage landowners, both farmers and non-farmers to manage their hedgerows more effectively; these grants are available to pay for gapping up, hedge laying or coppicing. Small mammals in pastoral land are largely confined to hedgerows or other non-crop features and are therefore particularly vulnerable to intensification (Bates and Harris, 2009). Small mammal species constitute the main prey biomass for a number of species of mammals and birds, and therefore small mammal abundance directly influences the abundance and diversity of predator spec ies contributing to the complexity of local food webs (Korpimaki and Norrdahl, 1991). There remains some debate on the importance of linear habitats for small mammals, with some suggesting that they cannot support viable populations, that those found in hedgerows are ‘sink’ populations (Tattersall et al. 2004). However, there is evidence that small mammal abundance and diversity does not depend on the linear or non-linear character of the habitat and that linear habitats can support viable populations (Gelling et al. 2007). Thus, in large expanses of uninhabitable grassland, field boundary hedgerows are of great importance for maintaining small mammal populations in an agricultural landscape, but differing farming practices can lead to a huge variety in the quality of these habitats As the emphasis of farming has shifted there have been a number of agri-environment schemes introduced across Europe with the aim of reversing the effects of previous intensification a nd enhancing agricultural land for wildlife (Kleijn and Sutherland, 2003). The UK introduced a new set of farming standards in 2005 with farmers now guaranteed subsidy payments, known as ‘cross-compliance’, as long as they follow a set of prescribed conditions aimed at improving the environmental value of their farms. A compulsory code of good practice will preclude farming land within 2 m of the centre of a hedge (DEFRA, 2005a). Beyond cross-compliance subsidies, farmers can also apply to put their farmland into Environmental Stewardship (ES). ES is a tiered system, with Entry-Level ES designed to allow most farmers access to the payments by compiling a farm management plan that aims to improve the features of their farm for wildlife and to maintain/improve the scenic value of the British countryside. The enhanced hedgerow management option within ES requires that the farmer cut the hedge no more than once every 2 years, that hedgerows are cut during the winter and tha t cutting be staggered across the farm. The combined aim of these prescriptions is to ensure that at least some of the hedgerow is allowed to flower every summer (Defra, 2005b). Properly managed hedgerows are valuable features, playing a key role in enhancing the wildlife value of farmland. Flowering hedgerows are an important source of food and shelter for a number of birds (Hinsley and Bellamy, 2000). Studies suggest that the ES schemes will have a beneficial effect, mainly for taxa such as invertebrates and birds (Kleijn and Sutherland 2003), Whittingham (2007) emphasizes the importance of monitoring the effects of ES to ensure that the scheme’s prescriptions meet the needs of a greater range of species. It is much less well understood how the changes to hedgerow management will effect small mammal abundance, and it is important that there is greater understanding of the factors that influence small mammal populations since small mammals provide the major source of prey biomass for many larger predators (Love et al., 2000). Small mammals also play a role in a range of important ecosystem processes (Hayward and Phillipson, 1979). Previous studies have established the main effects of varying hedgerow management within arable landscapes (Shore et al. 2005). Arable environments provide cover for small mammals due to the height and density of the crop. Small mammals have been shown to make substantial use of the field at certain times of the year (Tattersall et al. 2001; Tew et al. 2000; Todd et al. 2000). However, no small mammal species have been shown to make use of agriculturally improved pastoral fields at any time of year (Montgomery and Dowie 1993). Grazed pastoral land provides very little cover, restricting the movements of resident small mammal communities. Therefore, hedgerow management in predominantly dairy and cattle areas will likely have a large influence on the success of small mammal populations (Gelling et al. 2007). In particular , the level of ground cover vegetation along the hedgerow and the presence of some form of non-farmed margin can significantly affect the small mammal abundance (Bates and Harris 2009, Gelling et al. 2007). The 2m margin prescribed by ‘cross compliance’ is irrelevant in terms of providing cover within pastoral landscapes. Although the 2m margin remains uncut and clear of interference from the farmer (no fertilisers), year round grazing will mean that little cover is offered right up to the base of the hedgerow. Therefore, whereas ES management may boost small mammal numbers within arable areas (Shore et al. 2005), the value of ES hedgerow management within pastoral landscapes is less well understood. I utilised a number of hedgerow sites to compare hedgerow structure and small mammal communities on ES farms versus non-ES farms. For each farm, one site was selected to be representative and one to include a significant (2m plus) conservation buffer strip of unimproved, no n-grazed grass/shrubland. I aimed to investigate (i) how ES management effects the hedgerow characteristics, in particular the level of ground cover for small mammals (ii) whether these ES prescriptions are providing any significant benefit for small mammal densities and (iii) as the movements of small mammals within pastoral landscapes are so restricted, could small mammal assemblages in hedgerows be significantly improved by including an unimproved, non-grazed, grassy margin or ‘conservation buffer strip’ (2+m from the edge of the hedgerow). Methods Sites The study was conducted over 20 different farms spread across County Durham and Northumberland. The farms were selected due to their suitability for this study, each farm containing both a hedgerow site with a conservation buffer strip and at least one without. All farms selected were representative in terms of habitat of those within the local area. A hedgerow was defined as a continuous line of woody vegetation no more than 3m tall. Hedgerow Survey The farms were paired, with one ES farm neighbouring a non-ES farm, making 10 farm pairs and 20 farms in total. Hedgerow surveys were carried out throughout June 2009. 10 hedgerows were randomly selected on each farm. All hedgerows on each farm were surveyed using an edited version of the Defra Hedgerow Survey Form and handbook (DEFRA, 2007). Each hedgerow was measured to determine its cross-sectional area. The character of the hedgerow was scored by reference to a series of standard diagrams, noting the level of available ground level cover for small mammals (1=little or no vegetation cover at ground level, 2=gappy cover at ground level, 3=constant vegetation cover from hedgerows at ground level). Additional variables were recorded, including whether the hedge had been flailed (mechanically cut) recently, i.e. during the previous winter, the number of standard and veteran trees and the number of woody species within the hedgerow. The data sets for cross-sectional area, level of gr ound vegetation cover and the number of woody species were averaged to produce an overall mean value for each farm. The number of flailed hedgerows was summed to give an overall percentage of hedgerows flailed on each farm. Trapping Procedure Previous trapping studies have shown that, unlike in arable land, small mammals within pastoral land stay almost entirely within the hedgerows and therefore hedgerows can be treated as linear habitats (Gelling et al. 2007). Trapping was carried out in two major trapping sessions, mid-April to June and mid-July to August, 2009. Within each of the 20 farm sites I selected a representative hedgerow and a hedgerow flanked by an unimproved 2m+ grassy margin, designated a conservation buffer strip, making a total of 40 trapping sites. Where possible the hedgerow sites were selected randomly, however, each ES site was required to have been managed according to the prescriptions of Stewardship farming, i.e. the hedgerows were cut not more than once every two years and the farmers adhered to the prescribed 2m margin of non-interference (2m from the centre of the hedge) (DEFRA 2005a, DEFRA 2005b). Every hedgerow selected was flanked by improved or semi-improved grassland for the grazing of d airy cattle and/or the production of silage. At each site, a 104m section of isolated hedgerow (not directly connected to woodland) was selected.13 Longworth traps were placed at ground level within the hedgerow, at 8m intervals. Traps were provisioned with hay, apple, oat grains and dried mealworm. The traps were set at dusk and checked at dawn and dusk for three days. All targeted animals that were captured were fur-clipped to help identify re-captures. Species, sex and weight were recorded for each animal before release at the point of capture. Analysis Hedgerow characteristics were recorded and analysed using a paired measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) (SPSS 17.0.2). I had multiple dependent variables that I wished to analyse, however, using multiple one-way ANOVAs to try to do this would have raised the probability of a Type I error (Gibson et al. 2007). Therefore the data was investigated using a MANOVA which controls the experiment-wide error rate. Multiple dependent variables that were related (e.g. Cross sectional area of hedge and amount of ground cover, etc.) were analysed in one test, with the hedgerow management (ES managed or non-ES managed) being treated as the two levels of the treatment factor (Gibson et al. 2007). There was a total of 4 dependent variables; the mean cross-sectional area, the percentage of flailed hedgerows, the average number of woody species and the mean level of ground cover. For each trapping session the relative density was estimated as the minimum number alive (MNA), or the total number of individuals caught over the three days. Species richness was calculated as the number of different species caught. Using General Linear Modelling (GLM; Minitab 15), I examined the relationships between small mammal densities and a number of predictor variables. The dependent variables I investigated were the overall total small mammal density (MNA) and the total biomass of all small mammals caught within 104m. I also investigated the density of each individual species, constructing similar models for the number of captures and biomass for each individual species. I focused on wood mice Apodemus sylvaticus and bank voles Clethrionomys glareolus. There were also some captures of field voles Microtus agrestis and common shrew Sorex araneus, these data were not investigated individually but were included in the total density of small mammals and the total biomass. The predictor variables considered were the presence/absence of ES management, the presence/absence of a con servation buffer strip and the number of standard and veteran trees within the hedgerow. The relationships were analysed using a backward stepwise GLM, with all main predictors and their first order interactions initially included within the model. The insignificant interactions were then removed. Each trapping session was carried out over 3 days on 4 sites on neighbouring farms, the variation between trapping locations and times was taken into account by including the variable ‘block’ within the initial model, however, it was found to have no significance and was therefore removed from the final model. There are well documented seasonal variations in small mammal abundance (Alibhai and Gipps 1985; Flowerdew 1985; Butet et al. 2006), therefore, as there were two major trapping seasons (mid-April to May and Mid-June to July) I included the variable ‘season’ in all models. The number of captures of field voles and common shrew were too low to allow thorough a nalysis; however, the number of captures for each species was investigated using a Kruskal-Wallis test (Minitab 15) to determine the relationship between the presence of a buffer strip and their individual abundance. Results The total number of catches was 276 individual small mammals of four different species, during 240 trap sessions (dusk till dawn and dawn till dusk). The most abundant species were wood mice, making up 45% of the captures, 11% of which were juveniles, with a total capture of 122 individuals (61 in the first season of trapping and 61 in the second season). 32% (89 individuals) of captures were bank voles, none of which were juveniles, with 26 captures in season 1 and 53 captures in season 2. 17% of captures (48 individuals) were common shrews and 6% (17 individuals) were field voles. Table 1. Summary of the number of captures for each species Total Wood mice Captured – Season 1 (juveniles) / Season 2 (juveniles) Bank vole – Season 1 / Season 2 Field vole – Season 1 / Season 2 Common shrew – Season 1 / Season 2 Total – Season 1 / Season 2 Total N trapped throughout study 122 – 61 (2) / 61 (11) 89 – 36 / 53 17 – 4 / 13 48 – 28 / 20 276 – 129 / 147 Percentage of total 44 33 6 17 100 Percentage of hedgerows present 93 46 23 45 Effect of ES Management and Buffer strips A total of 40 hedgerows were surveyed with 20 hedgerows under ES hedgerow management and 20 hedgerows under non-ES management. ES sites had been under ES hedgerow management for 2 years or more. The measured dimensions of the hedgerow were used to estimate the hedgerow cross sectional area. Analysis using a paired measures MANOVA found no significant difference in the size of ES managed hedgerows to the size of non-ES managed hedgerows (F(1,9)=0.847, P=0.381). ES management also had no significant effect on the percentage of flailed hedgerows within the farm (F(1,9)=0.019, P=0.889). The woody species diversity within hedgerows was not significantly different between ES managed hedgerows and non-ES managed hedgerows (F(1,9)=3.047, P=0.115). There was a significant positive association of the presence of ES hedgerow management with the level of woody vegetation cover at ground level (F(1,9)=10.613, P=0.010). Table 2. Comparisons of hedgerow characteristics on ES managed farms versus non-ES managed farms. Data were analysed using a paired MANOVA. Mean (SE) Hedgerow characteristic Description of measurement ES Non-ES F(1,9) P Area Average cross sectional area/m2 2.99 (0.12) 2.83 (0.14) 0.847 0.381 Flailed Percentage of hedgerows that had been recently flailed (flailed during previous Winter) 26.00 (2.21) 25.00 (6.54) 0.019 0.893 Species diversity Number of woody species 3.16 (0.24) 2.73 (0.27) 3.047 0.115 Small mammal cover Average Area of small Mammal cover (1=little or no vegetation cover at ground level, 2=gappy cover at ground level, 3=constant vegetation cover from hedgerows at ground level) 2.63 (0.87) 2.13 (0.11) 10.613 0.010 Small Mammal Assemblages Backward stepwise general linear modelling was used to analyse the data. The results showed that buffer strips have a significant effect on the total number caught within the hedgerow (F(1,35)= 16.29, P0.001), with the numbers of captures rising along hedgerows flanked by buffer strips. ES management also appeared to have a positive significant effect on the total number of captures (F(1,35) = 5.23, P=0.028), however, the positive association with increased captures was not as strong as seen with buffer strips. The number of standard trees did not significantly effect the total number of captures (F(1,35)=0.91, P=0.346). Season had no significant effect on the number of catches (F(1,35) = 1.09, P=0.305), and there were no significant interactions between variables affecting the number of captures. A GLM for total biomass showed similar results with Season (F(1,34)=0.83, P=0.369) and the number of standard trees (F(1,34)=1.12, P=0.298) both having no significant effect on the tot al biomass. ES management had a positive association with total biomass (F(1,34)=4.92, P=0.033), as did the presence of a buffer strip (F(1,34)=27.62, P0.001). Interestingly, there was an interaction between Season and the presence/absence of a Buffer Strip which appears to have a significant effect on the total biomass (F(1,34)=3.18), P=0.083), with greater total biomass found within hedgerows flanked by buffer strips in the second season of trapping (mid July-August). Wood mice were the most common species trapped, contributing 45% of the captures. The factors affecting wood mice captures were analysed using a backward stepwise GLM. Season had no significant effect (F(1,34)=2.36, P=0.134). Unlike the model involving ‘total captures’, ES management (F(1,34)=0.07, P=0.798) and Buffer Strip (F(1,34)0.01, P=0.947) had no significant effect on the number of wood mice captured. The results show that number of trees within a hedgerow is the most significant factor affecti ng wood mouse abundance (F(1,34)=79.65, P0.001). There was also an interaction between the season and the number of trees within a hedgerow which had a significant effect on the number of wood mouse captures (F(1,34)=4.81, P=0.035). The number of wood mouse captures was significantly increased in hedgerows containing a greater number of trees in the second season of trapping (mid-July to August). A backward stepwise GLM constructed for total wood mice mass showed similar results. Season had no significant effect (F(1,35)=1.36, P=0.252). ES management had no significant effect on the total wood mice mass (F(1,35)=0.26, P=0.616). The presence/absence of a buffer strip also had no significant effect on the total mass of wood mice (F(1,35)=0.05, P=0.831). However, the number of trees within a hedgerow was shown to have a strong positive association with the total mass of wood mice (F(1,35)=49.03, P=0.003). A backward stepwise GLM was constructed for both ‘bank vole capturesâ₠¬â„¢ and ‘the total bank vole mass’, both models produced similar results. Season had no effect on bank vole captures (F(1,35)=2.06, P=0.160) and total bank vole mass (F(1,35)=1.66, P=0.206). The presence of ES management on the hedgerow had a significant positive effect on the number of bank vole captures (F(1,35)=7.15, P=0.011) and on the total bank vole mass (F(1,35)=5.91, P=0.020). The presence of a buffer also had a significant effect, increasing the number of bank vole captures (F(1,35)=34.90, P0.001) and the total bank vole mass (F(1,35)=28.11, P0.001). The number of standard and veteran trees also appeared to have significant effect on bank vole captures (F(1,35)=4.41, P=0.043), bank vole abundance is reduced in areas with more veteran trees. However, the total bank vole mass was not significantly effected by the number of veteran trees (F(1,35)=2.32, P=0.137). Table 3. Summary statistics from general linear models Model Variables F P Adj. R2 Total Captures Season F(1,35)=1.09 0.305 53.79% ES Managed F(1,35)=5.23 0.028a Buffer Strip F(1,35)=16.29 0.001a Standard Trees F(1,35)=0.91 0.346 Total Biomassc Season F(1,34)=0.83 0.369 65.32% ES Managed F(1,34)=4.92 0.033a Buffer Strip F(1,34)=27.62 0.001a Standard Trees F(1,34)=1.12 0.298 Season*Buffer Strip F(1,34)=3.18 0.083b Wood Mice Captures Season F(1,34)=2.36 0.134 79.72% ES Managed F(1,34)=0.07 0.798 Buffer Strip F(1,34)0.00 0.947 Standard Trees F(1,34)=79.65 0.001a Season*Standard Trees F(1,34)=4.81 0.035a Total Wood Mice Massd Season F(1,35)=1.36 0.252 69.06% ES Managed F(1,35)=0.26 0.616 Buffer Strip F(1,35)=0.05 0.831 Standard Trees F(1,35)=49.03 0.003a Bank Vole Captures Season F(1,35)=2.06 0.160 54.76% ES Managed F(1,35)=7.15 0.011a Buffer Strip F(1,35)=34.90 0.001a Standard Trees F(1,35)=4.41 0.043a Total Bank Vole Masse Season F(1,35)=1.66 0.206 50.74% ES Managed F(1,35)=5.91 0.020a Buffer Strip F(1,35)=28.11 0.001a Standard Trees F(1,35)=2.32 0.137 a – Significant to the 95% confidence level b – Significant to the 90% confidence level c Total Biomass was square root transformed before analysis. d Wood Mice Mass was square root transformed before analysis. e Bank Vole Mass was square root transformed before analysis. A total of 17 field voles were captured, with all 17 trapped in hedgerows flanked by a conservation buffer strip. A total of 48 Common shrews were trapped, 81% of which were caught in hedgerows not flanked by a buffer strip Table 4. Non-target species captures. Effect of buffer strip, analysed using Kruskal-Wallis test. Total Captures Species Buffer Strip Present No Buffer Strip H P (adjusted for ties) Field vole 17 0 8.30 0.004 Common shrew 9 38 12.73 0.001 Discussion Hedgerow characteristics are known to affect small mammal numbers. Hedgerows with many gaps and a lack of ground cover support significantly lower small mammal populations (Gelling et al. 2007). Small mammals will select against hedgerows with a lack of vegetative cover due to the increased risk of predation (Orrock et al. 2004). Our results suggest that ES farms produce denser hedgerows with more cover at the ground level than non-ES farms. This is reflected in the small mammal survey which shows a somewhat strong association between small mammal numbers and ES hedgerows. However, having surveyed the farms and the farmers, I acknowledge that a wide number of variables affect the characteristics of the hedgerow. I suggest that the state of the hedgerows for small mammals is more significantly affected by the mindset of the farmer. Those farmers who have moved onto the Entry level ES scheme are generally those who most actively manage their farm. One supporting piece of data for thi s theory, is the number of flailed hedgerows on ES farms compared to non-ES farms. The hedgerow survey found that there were no differences in the number of recently flailed hedgerows within ES farms compared to non-ES farms, therefore, even though the cutting of hedgerows on ES farms is restricted, it still occurs as often on the ES farms within this survey than on the non-ES farms. The suggestion is that those farmers who are on the ES scheme are more actively involved in managing their farm, including their hedgerows, therefore hedgerows on ES farms commonly provide denser vegetation, less gaps and more cover at ground level. The typical ES farmer is more actively managing the hedge as a boundary or barrier to cattle than the typical non-ES farmer. The author suggests this conclusion having discussed hedgerow management with the farmers as part of the hedgerow survey and having a background in agriculture, however, it is also recognised that this topic goes beyond the scope and a vailable data of this investigation. Hedgerows can be thought of as corridors linking woodland habitat, allowing small mammal migration (Soule and Terbough 1999), however, within the British pastoral landscape, hedgerows are often acting as the sole habitat for small mammals (Fitzgibbon 1997). My investigation found that the ratio of juvenile to adult wood mice increased during the season, with greater numbers present later in the summer, this is consistent with the observations of others (Alibhai and Gipps 1991, Flowerdew 1991). The breeding season for most small mammals begins in spring and ends in late summer, therefore it is natural that more juveniles are present in hedgerows as the summer progresses and they travel outward to establish their own home ranges. The presence of fully grown, breeding adults in both seasons of trapping indicates that animals are resident within the hedgerows, providing support for the argument that linear habitats can provide suitable habitat to support viable populations of small mammals. My results show that the total small mammal abundance and therefore the availability of prey biomass for predators is increased in hedgerows under ES management. The results of the hedgerow survey suggest that there is greater ground level vegetation cover in ES hedgerows. An increase in the amount of physical habitat creates greater foraging opportunities and can increase small mammal abundance (Gelling et al. 2007). Small mammals prefer hedgerows with greater ground level cover as they provide better refuge from predators (Orrock et al. 2004). Whereas the benefits of ES management for small mammal abundance remain unclear, this investigation highlights the importance of buffer strips. The value of unimproved grassy margins, in arable landscapes, for small mammal numbers has already been shown (Shore et al. 2005). This study suggests that the presence of a buffer strip along a hedgerow can provide a much improved habitat to support larger small mammal numbers in hedgerows within pastoral landscapes. Grassy margins are a refuge for small mammals beyond the hedgerow; they allow increased safety for foraging and greater shelter (Orrock et al. 2004). To understand the variation in the numbers trapped of each species, we need to establish an understanding of the differing ecological requirements for each species. The two most abundant species were the wood mouse and the bank vole. The results show that wood mice are found in greater numbers in hedgerows containing standard/veteran trees. This conclusion is supported by previous studies which have shown that trees within hedgerows are beneficial for wood mice (Montgomerie and Dowie, 1993). Mice often take shelter in burrows formed beneath trees/within tree roots which may suggest why this species was found more commonly within hedgerows containing standard/veteran trees (Montgomerie and Dowie, 1993). Wood mice are a generalist species occupying a wide variety of habitat (Flowerdew 1993). They general occupy a relatively large home range and travel extensively, consuming a wide range of food sources depending upon season and availability (Flowerdew 1993). This is reflected in the results, with wood mice having been trapped in 93% of all the hedgerows. The results also show that wood mice abundance is not affected by ES management for hedgerows, nor is it significantly improved by the presence of a buffer strip. Wood mice have been shown to avoid hedgerows with major gaps, and wood mouse captures have been shown to increase with proximity to woodland (Gelling et al. 2007). Wood mice have relatively large home ranges and the suggestion is that individuals rarely stay long within any one hedgerow; rather they travel through, utilising hedgerows for foraging and shelter between woodland (Montgomery and Dowie 1993; Gelling et al 2007; Todd et al 2000; Tew et al. 2000). Therefore, ES management and the presence of buffer strips have little effect on the number of wood mouse captures; more important is the proximity to woodland or the presence of trees within a hedgerow which provide the preferred shelter for the wood mouse (Todd et al. 2000; Tew et al. 2000). Bank voles are a more specialist species, and generally occupy much smaller home ranges than do wood mice. They are burrowers, using ground vegetation to create runs and pathways in deciduous habitats (Morris 1982; Alibhai and Gipps 1985). Bank voles are a major prey resource for a number of raptors and bank vole abundance has been shown to significantly affect raptor populations (Korpimaki and Norrdahl, 1991). Other studies have found that bank vole numbers are positively associated with the size of hedgerows (Pollard Relton, 1970; Tew, 1994; Bellamy et al., 2000). Grassy margins of 2m plus have been shown to significantly increase bank vole numbers in arable fields (Shore et al. 2005), my results show that this conclusion extends to pastoral landscapes with bank vole numbers being significantly increased by the presence of an unimproved grassy margin or conservation buffer strip. The results also suggest that ES management improves hedgerows for bank voles, with bank vole abundance found to be significantly higher on ES hedgerow sites. Bank voles are found in much greater abundance in areas which provide thick ground vegetation and suffer little disturbance (Tew 1994), my results suggest that this is partially provided by ES management, however, the creation of grassy margins along hedgerows could significantly improve bank vole abundance in pastoral landscapes. The creation of margins could also be significant in the conservation of field voles. Field vole numbers in the UK are in decline believed to be due to the loss of rough grass habitat in intensively managed arable regions (Harris et al., 1995; Love et al., 2000). Field voles are specialists and depend upon rough, ungrazed grassland within woodland and hedgerows. Field voles are g enerally only found within areas of long grass (Alibhai and Gipps, 1991b). Very few captures of field voles were recorded within this experiment, however all field voles captures occurred within hedgerows flanked by conservation buffer strips. The presence of a buffer strip may provide the field voles’ preferred habitat of rough, ungrazed grassland vegetation (Alibhai and Gipps 1991b). The result is concordant with others who have found that field vole numbers can be positively associated with the presence of a conservation buffer strip (Gelling et al. 2007). Within this experiment, the size of the grassy margin is not specified beyond the requirement that it is over 2m wide from the edge of the hedgerow. Other studies have shown that field vole numbers are positively correlated with grass margin width. Margins of 6m are rarely sufficient to support viable populations of field voles (Shore et al. 2005) and individuals are rarely found in margins of 4m (Bellamy et al. 2000). F ield voles favour areas of rough grassland, specifically areas with a high proportion of long grasses and dense litter cover (Tattersall et al. 2000). With all available land being used for grazing and silaging, very few pastoral farms currently offer such wide margins with dense litter cover. With field vole numbers in the decline, there is significant scope for the improvement of pastoral farming for the benefit of field voles. Although not targeted for trapping, there were a relatively large number of common shrews caught during the two seasons of trapping. Common shrews utilise burrow and create home ranges of no more than a few hundred metres in which they spend their entire lives. They are mainly insectivorous but also eat earthworms, slugs and snails (Gurnell and Flowerdew, 1996). Common shrews were more commonly caught within hedgerows not flanked by conservation buffer strips. Common shrews are known to prefer vegetation cover for foraging (Gurnell and Flowerdew, 1996), however, my result suggests that the thick vegetation cover within buffer strips is detrimental to common shrew numbers. In the long term, the benefit of ES management for small mammals is still uncertain. Bates and Harris (2007), suggest that ES will have little benefit for overall small mammal abundance. Shore et al. (2005) show that the grassy margins included in the ES management of hedgerows in arable landscapes can have a beneficial effect on the abundance of some species. It is important to understand what factors of hedgerow management effect small mammal abundance, as this will directly influence the densities of predator species (Love et al. 2000). My results suggest that ES management does increase small mammal abundances, however, I am unable to define how ES management benefits small mammals, with the hedgerow survey drawing no definitive conclusions on how ES management is affecting hedgerow characteristics. The results of this investigation do demonstrate the value of unimproved grassy margins within pastoral landscapes. Gelling et al. (2007) also note the benefit that ‘conservation buffer strips’ have for small mammal abundances within hedgerows in pastoral landscapes. Conclusion With a large part of the British countryside being managed as agricultural land, it is important that a balance is struck between food production and creating a stable habitat that can support a diversity of wildlife. The Environmental Stewardship schemes introduced in 2005 were important as a large scale step towards environmentally sensitive farming on a national scale. However, with so much land going into ES management it is important that scientists and the government instruct farmers properly. The prescriptions laid out within the ES guidelines are now being applied to huge areas of the countryside, however, the efficacy of the schemes for the wide scale health of British wildlife remains uncertain. Correct management of farmland and therefore the information within ES guidelines is key to halting the declines seen in many species over the last few decades. There needs to be constant monitoring of the effects of ES schemes in order to know how to move forward. It is also impo rtant that scientists continue to influence the guidelines for farmers to ensure maximum benefit for British wildlife. References Alibhai, S.K., Gipps, J.H.W. (1991a) Bank vole. In: Harris, S. 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